- Отрасли: Economy; Printing & publishing
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A way of building redistribution into the taxation system by taking money from people with high incomes and paying it to people with low incomes. Because it takes place automatically through the tax system, it may attach less stigma to the receipt of financial help than some other forms of welfare assistance. However, it may also discourage recipients from working to increase their income (see poverty trap), which is why some countries have introduced a form of negative income tax that is available only to the working poor. In the United States, this is known as the earned income tax credit.
Industry:Economy
A controversial phrase, which actually means little more than the lowest rate of unemployment at which the jobs market can be in stable equilibrium. Keynesians, encouraged by the Phillips curve, assumed that a government could lower the rate of unemployment if it was willing to accept a little more inflation. However, economists such as Milton Friedman argued that this supposed inflation-for-jobs trade-off was in fact a trap. Governments that tolerated higher inflation in the hope of lowering unemployment would find that joblessness dipped only briefly before returning to its previous level, while inflation would rise and stay high. Instead, they argued, unemployment has an equilibrium or natural rate, determined not by the amount of demand in an economy but by the structure of the labor market. This is the lowest level of unemployment at which inflation will remain stable. When unemployment is above the natural rate demand can potentially be increased to bring it to the natural rate, but attempting to lower it even further will only cause inflation to accelerate. Hence the natural rate is also known as the non-accelerating-inflation rate of unemployment, or NAIRU. At first, the NAIRU became synonymous with the view that macroeconomic policy could not conquer unemployment. It was often used to justify policy inaction even when unemployment rose to more than 10% of workers in industrialized countries during the 1980s and 1990s, even though economists’ estimates of the NAIRU differed hugely. More recently, economists looking for ways to reduce unemployment have started to ask whether, and under what circumstances, the natural rate might change. Most solutions have stressed the need to make more people employable at the prevailing level of wages, in particular by increasing labor market flexibility. Economists still disagree over what jobless rate at any particular point in time is the NAIRU, but nobody any longer thinks that the natural rate is fixed. Indeed, some think the concept has no meaning at all.
Industry:Economy
When a monopoly occurs because it is more efficient for one firm to serve an entire market than for two or more firms to do so, because of the sort of economies of scale available in that market. A common example is water distribution, in which the main cost is laying a network of pipes to deliver water. One firm can do the job at a lower average cost per customer than two firms with competing networks of pipes. Monopolies can arise unnaturally by a firm acquiring sole ownership of a resource that is essential to the production of a good or service, or by a government granting a firm the legal right to be the sole producer. Other unnatural monopolies occur when a firm is much more efficient than its rivals for reasons other than economies of scale. Unlike some other sorts of monopoly, natural monopolies have little chance of being driven out of a market by more efficient new entrants. Thus regulation of natural monopolies may be needed to protect their captive consumers.
Industry:Economy
Shorthand for everything that is produced, earned or spent in a country (see GDP and GNP).
Industry:Economy
The total outstanding borrowing of a country’s government (usually including national and local government). It is often described as a burden, although public debt may have economic benefits (see balanced budget, fiscal policy and golden rule). Certainly, debt incurred by one generation may become a heavy burden for later generations, especially if the money borrowed is not invested wisely. The national debt is a total of all the money ever raised by a government that has yet to be paid off; this is very different from an annual public-sector budget deficit. In 1999, the American government celebrated a huge budget surplus, yet the country still had a national debt equal to nearly half its GDP.
Industry:Economy
A market dominated by a single buyer. A monopsonist has the market power to set the price of whatever it is buying (from raw materials to labor). Under perfect competition, by contrast, no individual buyer is big enough to affect the market price of anything.
Industry:Economy
When the production of a good or service with no close substitutes is carried out by a single firm with the market power to decide the price of its output. Contrast with perfect competition, in which no single firm can affect the price of what it produces. Typically, a monopoly will produce less, at a higher price, than would be the case for the entire market under perfect competition. It decides its price by calculating the quantity of output at which its marginal revenue would equal its marginal cost, and then sets whatever price would enable it to sell exactly that quantity. In practice, few monopolies are absolute, and their power to set prices or limit supply is constrained by some actual or potential near-competitors (see monopolistic competition). An extreme case of this occurs when a single firm dominates a market but has no pricing power because it is in a contestable market; that is if it does not operate efficiently, a more efficient rival firm will take its entire market away. Antitrust policy can curb monopoly power by encouraging competition or, when there is a natural monopoly and thus competition would be inefficient, through regulation of prices. Furthermore, the mere possibility of ¬antitrust action may encourage a monopoly to self-regulate its behavior, simply to avoid the trouble an investigation would bring.
Industry:Economy
Somewhere between perfect competition and monopoly, also known as imperfect competition. It describes many real-world markets. Perfectly competitive markets are extremely rare, and few firms enjoy a pure monopoly; oligopoly is more common. In monopolistic competition, there are fewer firms than in a perfectly competitive market and each can differentiate its products from the rest somewhat, perhaps by advertising or through small differences in design. These small differences form barriers to entry. As a result, firms can earn some excess profits, although not as much as a pure monopoly, without a new entrant being able to reduce prices through competition. Prices are higher and output lower than under perfect competition.
Industry:Economy
Any market where money and other liquid assets (such as treasury bills) can be lent and borrowed for between a few hours and a few months. Contrast with capital markets, where longer-term capital changes hands.
Industry:Economy
Makes the world go round and comes in many forms, from shells and beads to gold coins to plastic or paper. It is better than barter in enabling an economy’s scarce resources to be allocated efficiently. Money has three main qualities:
* as a medium of exchange, buyers can give it to sellers to pay for goods and services;
* as a unit of account, it can be used to add up apples and oranges in some common value;
* as a store of value, it can be used to transfer purchasing power into the future. A farmer who exchanges fruit for money can spend that money in the future; if he holds on to his fruit it might rot and no longer be useful for paying for something. Inflation undermines the usefulness of money as a store of value, in particular, and also as a unit of account for comparing values at different points in time. Hyper-inflation may destroy confidence in a particular form of money even as a medium of exchange. Measures of liquidity describe how easily an asset can be exchanged for money (the easier this is, the more liquid is the asset).
Industry:Economy
